The Conflict Of The Congo - 1460 Words

In the year 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium began to display an interest in the civilization mission in Africa. The documents on European Imperialism provide evidence for how the individuals in the Congo are being exploited for European benefit, under the profit-making aim of King Leopold II. European brutality in the Congo was the logical result of the European desire to implement ‘proper’ civilization in the Congo, albeit through a lack of cultural understanding and compassion towards the people of Congo. First, the document â€Å"Selections from the 1885 Berlin Act (Treaty)† was an outline to the European people that King Leopold II had good intentions for his mission in the Congo. However, it depicted the contradiction of what his true intentions were and what had actually occurred. King Leopold outlined six Declarations for what he desired to change for the Congo. 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Forms of Industrial Organziation - 1432 Words

Forms of Industrial Organization Economists group industries into four distinct market structures: monopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition, and competitive market. These four market models differ in several respects: the number of firms in the industry, whether those firms produce a standardized product or try to differentiate their products from those of other firms, and how easy or how difficult it is for firms to enter the industry (McConnell Brue, 2004). This paper further defines each market structure and provides an example of a company representing each market structure. Monopoly A monopoly exists when a specific individual or an enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to†¦show more content†¦Either entry to or exit from monopolistically competitive industries is quite easy† (McConnell Brue, 2004, p. 413). Nike running shoes are an example of monopolistic competition where Nike states that their Dynamic Ride adapts to every stride for customized support and excellent cushioning of a runner’s foot (Nike, Inc., 2010). Nike is clearly distinguishing its running shoe designs from those of competitors. According to the Campaign for Labor Rights, the cost to manufacture a pair of Nike shoes is about $3.50 while retailing for over $100 (Glenn, 2004). Nike’s competitors such as Adidas, Mizuno, and Saucony also retail many running shoe models for over $100. Nike employs competition-based pricing as their shoes are priced within 10% of competitor’s. Competitive Market A competitive market is essential to preserve constancy and profit in business where there are like businesses. By having a competitive market it permits businesses to modify items and prices dependent on the needs of the consumers, competition and profit and sales of a business. Examples of competitive businesses are the fuel, vehicle, food chains, technology and office supply chains and cable. Walmart is an example of a competitive market because of the huge number ofShow MoreRelatedThe Social Justice Issue Of Globalization839 Words   |  4 Pagesroles of globalization. This has in turn created a more competitive economic climate. Extensive form of globalisation comes from export trade, which results from advantage based on natural resources and low-wage labor. This control and injustice of poverty should not be accepted. As we enter the Digital age, some two billion people still do not have access to electricity, the basic technology of the industrial age. This inequality of electricity, a basic need for some, not even a choice for those inRead MoreManagement History2328 Words   |  10 PagesManagement History Modern managers use many of the practices, principles, and techniques developed from earlier concepts and experiences. The Industrial Revolution brought about the emergence of large-scale business and its need for professional managers. Early military and church organizations provided the leadership models. In 1975, Raymond E. Miles wrote Theories of Management: Implications for Organizational Behavior and Development published by McGraw Hill Text. In it, he popularized a

Selection, Hardware and Software Requirements of a PLC Free Essays

Understand the selection, hardware and software requirements of a PLC There are 3 types of PLC, unitary, modular and rack-mounted. A unitary PLC Is a stand alone unity, it has no room for expansion and works on Its own. They are useful for automating activities such as stress testing. We will write a custom essay sample on Selection, Hardware and Software Requirements of a PLC or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example the stress testing of a hoist, Instead of paying someone to manually control the hoists up and down movement leaving time In between each motion a PLC could be used Instead. It could be set up to perform a number of cycles of movement of the holst by the use of Ilmlt switches t the top and bottom of Its movement to detect when to change direction. The time to walt between movements can be set so that the motor doesn’t get strained. Other safety features could be added, for example, a set of sensors could be installed around the hoist to stop it’s movement if some one comes too close to it. It would also be easier to set the parameters of the test and change them easily for testing a different hoist or piece of equipment. It would have to keep its functionality to a small scale as it can’t be upgraded at all. A large variety of inputs and outputs could be sed as most PLCs support analogue and digital. This would mean you could have temperature sensors in use on the analogue and through-beam sensors on digital. It is likely that this type of PLC would be mounted somewhere near the object it is controlling, most likely to a nearby wall. A modular PLC allows for other modules to be connected to it increasing its functionality such as position sensing, stepper and servo motion control and packaging and press controls. Where it may have only had the ability to handle a certain amount of functions adding more increases this. The two or more connect ogether and act as if they still Just one. This would be useful for a company that uses a greater amount automation than the above company, perhaps for a conveyor belt system that is wanted to be upgraded in the future and with modularity more modules could be added to allow for the extension of the conveyor belt and the new Inputs and outputs that are required. For example a bottling company may only just fill bottles but not label them, they could extend the conveyor to allow for them to print and attach labels to the bottles as well which would require a lot more sensors o detect the location of the bottle and outputs for controlling the labelling machine. Individual parts of the PLC can also be swapped out such as the power supplies and CPU, Central Processing unit, handles the programming and Interpreted the Inputs/ outputs. A rack-mounted PLC is very similar to a modular PLC with the ablllty to upgrade and change different parts of it but they are on standard cards that slot into standard more can be fit into a cabinet due to their design to fit closely with similar units. They are most likely to be used on large assembly lines with a wide range of equipment in use simultaneously. They can be upgraded to allow the line to run better with more memory and faster CPU to better work with the large amount of things happening. The racks with the PLCs in are likely to be kept either in the factory control room or their own individual room specifically for them. Cost is the most important aspect to selecting the right PLC and the lowest cost PLC is the unitary because it is as it is. It can’t be modified in anyway they can get expensive though as the specifications increase. Next up is the modular PLC which can be quite large to allow it to be upgraded with more memory, faster CPU and greater power upply. The most expensive are the rack mounted PLCs. They are much smaller than the modular PLCs but still retain the ability to be upgraded allowing you to have more powerful PLCs in smaller space. A robotic arm inside a cell would need to perform the same task continuously and because of this a PLC could be used. Using a series of limit switches to control when the arm moves there wouldn’t be a problem because it would be able to stop before hitting any obstructions that may be in the way. For example a series of optical sensors would be able to detect when the item to be manufactured as entered the ell and is in the correct position for the arm which would allow the arm to pick it up and perform what it had been programmed to do. Be it to spray paint on it or to add something onto it, because those motions do not need to be dynamic a single program would be enough to manage it. The software requirements could be quite large depending on the complexity of the task and the robotic arm If there are a lot of joints on the arm that are controlled by motors then the program will need to control each one independently and add to the fact the movements required then it is quite complex set of instructions the arm requires because of this it will need a large amount of memory and a fast CPU to execute the commands quickly as it is likely that the manufacturing cell is required to get through a lot of items a day. This would most likely rule out the use of a unitary PLC because the cost would be too great for one with the required specifications. It is also likely that a large amount of robotic arms would be in use so a rack mounted system would be more space efficient, they do cost more than modular PLCs but keeping all the PLCs in cabinets near each other n a neat and organised manner can make it easier for any maintenance required on them. They would need to be near enough to a computer to program them and update software when necessary. The computer could be in a completely different room as a ethernet cable is used to load the new software into them but having one nearby would make it easier for any quick alterations to the software needed in the likely that the operator would use a proprietary piece of software to program the PLC with, if they were from Siemens they would be programmed in Ladder Logic. A PLC would be very useful for this type of activity because it is repetitive, the same item would be having the same thing done to it. A PLC controlled arm doesn’t need breaks, if set up properly, so it could take the place of a human and thus save money. A problem though is that the item that comes into the cell could have a defect on it that wouldn’t be noticed by the sensors in use so whatever the arm does may be done to something that needs to be scrapped. That is something a human worker would have noticed and would have thus saved money by not doing anything to it. The main benefit of having a PLC control it is that the Job is done autonomously and would be more cost effective than employing a human to do it but you lose out on the fact the human can see what they are doing and ensure that the item entering the cell is correct and make sure he does his Job completely before sending it out, if it was spraying they would be able to check the coat is even and well done by eye where you would not get that from a PLC. Stricter control further down the line would eliminate this though. Immediate costs would be expensive with a PLC solution, the obotic arms that are going to be controlled need to be bought, the PLCs need to be bought, mounted and wired, someone needs to write the software for them and then maintain their operation. That position would likely be a higher paid position than someone working on the assembly line. Those that do work on the assembly line do not have as high start up costs but the costs are continuous plus allowance for tools and equipment needed such as PPE. Which leads on to the potential cost each has. If a robotic arm breaks it could potentially lead to the whole line being stopped while it s repaired, both of which will cost time and money. If a worker was to not be wearing the required PPE or Just sustain an injury it could mean that the line has to stop although he would be quickly replaced to keep the line running. There is also a possibility that the person that was injured might file claims against the company that could lead to a large loss of money. The expansion of what the PLC controlled could be very costly as it would require new equipment and wiring which could mean that parts of production need to be shut down for it to be laid. How to cite Selection, Hardware and Software Requirements of a PLC, Papers

Critically evaluate Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of human development with particular reference to identity development during adolescence free essay sample

Erikson is a neo-Freudian, who chose not to criticise but to develop Freud’s ideas. Erikson extended many aspects of Freud’s ‘psychosexual stage theory’ within his ‘psychosocial stage theory’ (1975; 1968; 1963). Erikson suggested the ego as the driving force in personality development, unlike Freud who suggested this to be the id. There were originally eight universal stages of development in the psychosocial stage theory which span across an individual’s entire life; these eight stages later had a ninth stage added. Each stage in the psychosocial stage theory is marked with a crisis. Individuals must learn to balance both the positive and negative poles of the crises by understanding each as useful; thus allowing positive outcomes to suffice. These outcomes are often referred to as ‘virtues’. Although the ninth stage of Erikson’s theory sees all previous conflicts merge. The ninth stage also sees a reversal of crises, as the negative pole now takes dominance over the positive. Erikson’s psychosocial stages are an elaboration upon the three stages Freud proposed, which cease post-adolescence. According to Erikson failure to pass through any stage successfully in the psychosocial stage theory does not stop individuals entering into further stages. Overcoming these past failings can be achieved in future crisis resolution, according to Erikson. This is also a development upon Freud’s psychosexual stage theory, as Freud believed that failing to overcome a crisis resulted in an individual becoming fixated with the stage for the rest of their life. The stage of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory which has received most theoretical and experimental interest is the fifth stage, ‘adolescence’; thus I will use this stage to provide a brief illustration of the acquisition of a virtue. This stage sees individuals coming from adolescence in to ‘young adulthood’ which is the sixth stage. The sixth stage has the conflict of ‘intimacy’ Vs ‘isolation’; with the possibility of achieving the virtue ‘love’; the sixth stage is worth noting here because it has important implications in Erikson’s beliefs about the formulation of identity. Marcia (1980) has hailed achievement status in the fifth stage as a hallmark for maturity in individuals. The virtue of ‘fidelity’ is the achievement in the fifth stage. This is achieved by balancing the positive pole ‘identity’ and the negative pole ‘identity confusion’; which Berzonsky, (1997); LaVoie, (1994) have shown to be viable constructs. Attempts to achieve closure of this crisis is attempted by individuals via serious experimentation, this is referred to by Erikson as ‘identity achievement’. However, closure can also be achieved by individuals without the need for experimentation, this is thought to occur a result of their caregivers smothering the; not allowing sufficient exploration, thus resulting in the individual achieving closure by simply accepting the identity offered to him/ her by their caregivers, Erikson termed this ‘foreclosure’. However, not all individuals achieve closure at this stage; in this instance an individual may be referred to as diffuse, or in a stage of moratorium (this is a state which refers to a temporary phase of development on the way to achieving identity). If a balanced resolution (good balance of the crisis poles) is achieved at this stage in the theory an individual is confident that the sameness and continuity they have gathered in the achievement of virtues in the four previous stages are all recognised by others. This results in the individual having fidelity to their future roles (i. e. careers, family). On the other hand, poor resolution (too much of either the positive or the negative crisis poles) achieved at this stage is considered to be maladaptive for an individual; fidelity to future roles will become either too strong or not strong enough. Cote (1996) has disputed Erikson’s and Marcia’s claims that the sameness and continuity in the adolescent stage is the distinguishing feature of a mature individual. Cote argued that a diffuse identity or even foreclosure status maybe more appropriate in certain socio-cultural contexts. A diffuse identity or a foreclosure status may even be seen as an adaptive mechanism for individuals living within a culture which is undergoing vast change and uncertainty. This therefore suggests that Erikson’s theory of balanced crisis within this stage may be culturally dependant and thus may not always be the best outcome for all individuals. Lifton (1993) has argued that the portrayed continuity and sameness of identity is founded in traditional cultures, which holds relationships with institutions and symbols (i. e. religion) as very important. These ties with institutions and symbols, according to Lifton, have not been apparent for the majority of the late twentieth century. There has been little research which has examined Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory as a whole. One study which has has also provided significant findings relating to the theory (Ochse Plug, 1986). It is worth noting that the eighth stage which holds the possibility of achievement of the virtue ‘integrity’ was omitted from the results of this study due to the lack of elderly participants in the research. Ochse Plug, conducted factor analysis research on their findings, the results of which showed identity to be an over riding factor throughout all of the stages. This suggests that there are multiple stages concerned with a possible identity crisis (in some form or another). This would be expected by Erikson’s theory as it explains that the driving force in personality development is the ego, thus identity is considered to be developing at each stage of the theory along with the ego’s acquisition of virtues. There are further findings from Ochse Plug’s study which support Erikson’s ideas of personality development; although, these findings can also been interpreted as highlighting possible flaws of the theory. An example of this can be identified as the findings show that past crisis poles are strongly interrelated, which would be expected by the theory as it predicts that each stage builds upon the achievements of previous stages. However, the crises poles which have not yet been approached by an individual have also been shown to be strongly interrelated with the other crises poles. This appears to indicate that contrary to Erikson’s theory all of the crises poles appear to be running in parallel even when they have not been passed or even approached by individuals. Further flaws in Erikson’s theory are identified as these strong inter-correlations between crisis poles were only found to be true for white European participants, and not black South African participants (Ochse Plug, 1986). This appears to demonstrate that the accumulation of past virtues having an influence on future crises’ is dependent on ethnicity. Ochse Plug also found that male participants showed a stronger autonomy, industry and initiative compared to female participants, which suggests that the theory is affected by gender roles. As Erikson proposes a universal theory of psychosocial development, these results suggest that the universality of the theory is hampered by both ethnicity, and gender. Erikson’s psychosocial theory’s problem with gender roles highlighted by Ochse Plug’s findings has been criticised, perhaps more critically, but definitely more extensively by feminists, who believe that the theory does not adequately account for the female processes of identity development (Gilligan, 1982). Hodgson Fischer, (1979) have also criticised Erikson for showing a lack of attention to sex differences in his formulation of the development of identity in his theory. Douvan Adelson (1966) have shown that identity development differs substantially between males and females. This study has shown how females develop their identity via interpersonal relationships; whereas it has shown how men develop their identities via preoccupations with solitary tasks. It has been shown that both of the masculine processes (agency) and the feminine processes (communion) are both very important in the development of human experience (Bakan, 1966). Thus in light of this evidence Erikson has received much criticism for neglecting ‘half’ of the human experience of development. Erikson has been seen to have neglected the relational processes of identity formulation (which is considered the feminine route to identity, Douvan Adelson) due to his emphasis on agentic issues such as separateness, (which is considered the masculine route to identity formulation, Douvan Adelson). Morgan Farber, (1982) have illustrated how Erikson’s theory describes how men attain their identity and later develop intimacy; and how women first need to develop intimacy to form their identity. Morgan Farber suggest that according to Erikson women rely on men to be able to form their identity; as without a man there can be no resolution at the intimacy stage because the women’s ‘inner-space’ remains unfulfilled and therefore leaves women with no subsequent identity formation. If, as these feminists believe, this is true, the conclusion that women do not develop their identities in the same order as men can be drawn. This has lead to a consensus in beliefs amongst feminists that the stages of identity and intimacy are encountered by women in either a reverse order to that of the order men encounter them, or are at least fused together and encountered by women as a single stage. Thus Gilligan (1982), to account for these sex differences in the order the stages are encountered, has called for a re-examination of Erikson’s epigenetic chart. These feminist attacks on Erikson’s theory can be classified into two major criticisms. Firstly, that his work is inherently sexist; and secondly, the sequence of stages on the epigenetic chart is inaccurate for describing the development of women’s identity, which has resulted in Gilligan calling for a reordering of the epigenetic chart. The first major criticism of Erikson’s work has been suggested on two fronts, firstly it is suggested that social systems (such as motherhood, and marriage) have been interpreted by Erikson as a means to debilitate women’s development of their own identities. However this criticism has been shown to be weak; as it has been highlighted that selective quotations have been taken out of context and misinterpreted during the formulation of these arguments, (Horst, 1995, p272-4). Secondly, it is suggested that anatomical differences between men and women have been a reason for women being unable to adequately develop their identity, free of male intervention and without social constraints. The latter critique has been shown to be more credible than the first. As, although Erikson does explain how women can occupy male roles in society; their anatomical differences still limit their freedom to act against their sex roles imposed by society, as well as biology. However it should be remembered when noting this criticism, that there is an ambiguous cut off point to be considered when deciding where anatomical differences should be emphasised and/ or ignored; it has been shown that underemphasising sex roles can be just as dangerous as overemphasising them (Hare-Mustin Marecek, 1990). The second critique, which has called for a re-examination of Erikson’s epigenetic chart; is considered to be lacking in sufficient evidence to consider alterations to the chart (Horst, 1995). It has been noted by Horst that amongst this barrage of criticisms, there are major misconceptions regarding the process of personality development, as described in Erikson’s theory amongst the critics who have this unrequited hope for a re-examination of the epigenetic chart. It appears apparent that the critics understand each stage of development as an acquisition by the ego of a personality quality, with the elimination of its opposite; however, this is not a correct conceptualisation of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Erikson’s actual emphasis is focused on the importance of balance within each crisis, between both the positive and negative poles; with too much off either, the positive or the negative poles being maladaptive for development. Erikson also emphasises the importance of inter-correlations between previous crises on future crises. Thus Erikson does not depict that identity develops in the absence of intimacy, or vice versa, (as is the argument put forth by the feminists). Erikson on the other hand however describes how intimacy is also present in the process of identity development, and vice versa. Erikson explains that intimacy is developing and is identifiable simultaneously with identity development because individuals have to develop (amongst many other identity aspects), a sexual identity which is highly related to intimacy development. Therefore critics appear to miss interpret the key concept of balance in Erikson’s stages, as well as the fact the poles of each stage are interrelated to one another (Ochse Plug, 1986). It appears that Erikson’s theory, when understood with all of its complexity can explain female development to a more acceptable level than the feminist critiques wish to acknowledge or perhaps wish to accept. Another feminist who is concerned with the explanation of female identity development in Erikson’s theory has not jumped on the bandwagon by criticising Erikson’s theory, but has offered a new perspective to the problems listed by her fellow feminists so far. Josselson (1987), who, like other feminists believed that women’s identity is based upon connections and relationships; is critical of other feminists who (according to Josseson) have overlooked women’s identity development, through their persuit of unnecessary research tangents. She explains the need not to ask the question regarding females’ identity development of ‘whether’ females develop identities, as she urges feminists to ponder ‘how’ women form their identities. Josselson, conducted a longitudinal study concerned with women’s development, she used Marcia’s (1966) identity statuses to categorise the participants, although she did not (like previous researchers) simply attempt to fit women into the already existing (more masculine) categories; she instead redefined the categories to integrate women into them. The research shows two major findings, each relating to descriptions, which could help remove some of the misinterpretations of masculine and feminine routes to identity development. The first being that individuation does not need to only be described as separation, but can also be described in terms of â€Å"becoming different and maintaining connection at the same time† (Josselson, 1987, p171. ) The second being that the female’s journey status should not be defined as crisis between occupational goals alone, it should instead describe a crisis around, either occupational goals or relationship issues, this would therefore give them more choice and thus control in relation to their identity development. From her findings Josselson concluded that Erikson’s epigenetic chart need not be altered to integrate women into the theory, because a couple of terms may just need to be better defined and made slightly broader in scope to allow more feminine issues to be incorporated into them. The evidence provided has identified flaws of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages; with certain flaws being shown to be more viable than others. Both gender and ethical limitations have meant that the theory does not appear to be applicable as a universal theory. Further investigation of gender differences has lead to the theory being criticised by numerous researchers, in relation to its conceptualisation of how male and female identity is developed. Numerous researchers suggest that the theory holds a gender bias in its focus of agentic issues surrounding development; although findings from Josselson has suggested otherwise. Hamachek (1990) has also argued that of the many personality theories, Erikson’s psychosocial stages hold the most emphasis on the resolution of ‘female’ problems such as interpersonal issues of intimacy and feelings of isolation. As this argument would assume, evidence has suggested that Erikson’s epigenetic chart adequately accounts for both male and female development. Although there have also been criticisms of Erikson’s theory regarding the use of sexist overtones in both a social and anatomical way, the social issues appear to be overly limited themselves, thus holding no threat to Erikson’s theory. However, the anatomical differences have been shown to be a relatively stronger limitation of Erikson’s theory. Erikson’s revolutionary conceptualisation of personality development as a life long process has yet not lead to any advances in treatments, however it has been influential in the development of other theories concerned with personality, especially theories concerned with the ‘mid life crisis’, Levinson, (1978). There are still major concerns over the way in which the theory accounts for the clear differences in how males and females develop their identities, however there now appears to be feminists who are conforming to agreement that the theory can account for feminine issue of development, although these are still addressed to a lesser extent to that of male identity development. Clarification of the issues raised will require further examination of development in both males and females to allow for full drawn conclusions to be made regarding the theory’s gender differences relating to identity develpment. Reference List